Synthesis

• Acyl chlorides
  • Reacting carboxylic acids with acid chlorides (SOCl$_{2}$ or PCl$_{3}$) produces acyl chlorides:
    

    Figure 51.11: Acyl chloride synthesis.

    

• Acid anhydrides
  • Reacting carboxylic acids with acyl chlorides:
    

    Figure 51.12: Acyl anhydride synthesis.

    

• Esters
  • Esters are synthesized through esterification through the reaction of carboxylic acid with an alcohol:
    

    Figure 51.13: Ester synthesis

    

• Amides
  • Amides can be synthesized in multiple ways using acyl chlorides, anhydrides, and esters. All involve nucleophilic attack:
    

    Figure 51.14: Amide synthesis from the nucleophilic attack of a primary amine to the carbonyl carbon of an acyl chloride.